Abu al-Ëasan cAli b . Ismail al-Ashcari ( 260-324/874-936 )

Ninth in descent from the Companion of the Prophet , Abu Musa al-Ash`ari , founder of the school that bears his name , Abu al-Hasan `Ali b . Isma`il al-Ash`ari was born in Basra ( 260/873-4 ) . After a traditional education , he joined the circle of disciples of the Mu`tazili teacher Abu `Ali al-Jubba’i . In 300/912-3 , a breach occurred between him and his teacher and al-Asha`ri joined the traditionalists ( ahl al-sunnah ) .

He left Basra and came to Baghdad , studying fiqh with the Shafi`i jurist Abu Ishaq al-Marwazi ( d . 340 ) . He devoted the next twenty-four years to the refutation of “the Mu`tazila , the Rafida , the Jahmiyya , the Khawarij , and the rest of the various kinds of innovators” in the words of al-Khatib al-Baghdai . His student Bundar related that his yearly expenditure was a meager seventeen dirhams .

WORKS

 Among al-Ash`ari s books up to the year 320 as listed by himself in al-`Umad ( The Supports ) include Adab al-Jadal ( The Etiquette of Disputation ); Al-Asma’ wa’l-Ahkam ( The Names and the Rulings ) , which describes the divergences in the terminology of the scholars and their understanding of the general and the particular; Al-Dafi` li al-Muhadhdhab ( The Refutation of The Emendation ); Al-Funun ( The Disciplines ) which is a refutation of atheists . A second book bearing that title was also written , on the disciplines of kalâm; and one of his most important work , Al-Fusul ( Chapters ) , in twelve volumes , a refutation of the philosophers , perennialists , and members of various religions such as Brahmans , Jews , Christians , and Zoroastrians . It contains a refutation of Ibn al-Rawandi’s claim that the world exists without beginning .

In addition , he wrote Idah al-Burhan fi al-Radd `ala Ahl al-Zaygh wa al-Tughyan ( The Clarification of the Proof in the Refutation of Heretics ) , a preliminary to al-Mujaz; Al-Idrak ( The Awareness ) , on the disciplines that address the subtleties of dialectic theology; Al-Istita`a ( Potency ) , which is a refutation of the Mu`tazila; Al-Jawabat fi al-Sifat `an Masa il Ahl al-Zaygh wa al-Shubuhat ( The Replies Pertaining to the Attributes On the Questions and Sophistries of Heretics ) , al-Ash`ari s largest work , a refutation of all the Mu`tazili doctrines he himself had upheld previously .

Al-Ash`ari is one of the pioneers of the method of refutation using the methodology of the opponents; later al-Ghazali was to employ a similar method in his refutation of the philosophers . Al-Ash`ari also wrote al-Jawhar fi al-Radd `ala Ahl al-Zaygh wa al-Munkar ( The Essence: Refutation of the People of Heresy and Transgression ) which is , as the title suggest , a refutation various heresies . His work , al-Jism ( The Body ) is a proof of the Mu`tazila s inability to answer essential questions that pertain to corporeality , contrary to Ahl al-Sunna . Jumal al-Maqalat ( The Sum of Sayings ) is a compilation of the positions of atheists and the positions of monotheists whereas Khalq al-A`mal ( The Creation of Deeds ) is a refutation of the doctrine of the Mu`tazila and Qadariyya whereby human beings create their own deeds .

Al-Luma` fi al-Radd `ala Ahl al-Zaygh wa al-Bida` ( The Sparks: A Refutation of Heretics and Innovators ) is a short treatise refuting the claims of the heretics; al-Luma` al-Kabir ( The Major Book of Sparks ) is preliminary to Idah al-Burhan and , together with the Luma` al-Saghir , the last work composed by al-Ash`ari according to Shaykh `Isa al-Humyari . Maqalat al-Falasifa ( The Sayings of Philosophers ) deals with the theories and views of the philosophers and Maqalat al-Islamiyyin wa Ikhtilfa al-Musallin ( The Discourses of the Proponents of Islam and the Differences Among the Worshippers ) is an encyclopedia of Islamic sects .

Al-Ash`ari has also left behind Al-Masa il `ala Ahl al-Tathniya ( The Questions in Refutation of the Dualists ) and al-Mujaz ( The Concise ) in twelve volumes , once again on various Islamic sects . Al-Mukhtasar fi al-Tawhid wa al-Qadar ( The Abridgment: On the Doctrine of Oneness and Foreordained Destiny ) is a review of the different doctrinal issues which the opponents of Ahl al-Sunna are unable to address whereas al-Mukhtazan ( The Safekeeping ) is on the questions which opponents did not bring up but which pertain to their doctrines . Al-Muntakhal ( The Sifted ) is a response to questions from the scholars of Basra; Naqd al-Balkhi fi Usul al-Mu`tazila ( Critique of al-Balkhi and the Principles of the Mu`tazila ) is a refutation of the book of the Mu`tazili scholar al-Balkhi entitled Naqd Ta wil al-Adilla ( Critique of the Interpretation of the Textual Proofs ) . In addition , we have the al-Nawadir fi Daqa iq al-Kalam ( The Rarities Concerning the Minutiae of Dialectic Theology ) and Al-Qami` li Kitab al-Khalidi fi al-Irada ( The Subduer: A Refutation of al-Khalidi s Book on the Will ) , which is a refutation of al-Khalidi’s doctrine whereby Allah creates His own will .

Al-Radd `ala Ibn al-Rawandi ( Refutation of Ibn al-Rawandi ) is concerning the Divine Attributes and the Qur’an . Al-Radd `ala Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab al-Jubba I is an extensive refutation of a Mu`tazili scholar and of his book , al-Usul ( The Principles ) . Also included in the refutation literature are the al-Radd `ala al-Mujassima ( Refutation of the Anthropomorphists ); a refutation of `Abbad ibn Sulayman in the minutiae of kalâm; a refutation of a book by `Ali ibn `Isa; a refutation of al-Balkhi s book in which the latter claimed he had rectified Ibn al-Rawandi s error in his disputation; a refutation of al-Iskafi s book , al-Latif ( The Subtle ); a refutation of al-Jubba’i on the principles and conditions of scholarly investigation and the derivation of rulings; a refutation of al-Jubba I’s objections to al-Ash`ari on the vision of Allah in the hereafter as reported by Muhammad ibn `Umar al-Saymari .

He also wrote al-Ru’ya ( The Vision ) , which affirms the vision of Allah by the believers in the hereafter , contrary to the Mu`tazili doctrine which denies the possibility of such a vision; al-Sharh wa al-Tafsil fi al-Radd `ala Ahl al-Ifk wa al-Tadlil ( The Detailed Explanation in Refutation of the People of Perdition ) , a manual for beginners and students to read before al-Luma`; and al-Sifat ( The Attributes ) , a description of the doctrines of the Mu`tazila , Jahmiyya , and other sects that differ from Ahl al-Sunna on the topic of the Divine Attributes . It contains a refutation of Abu al-Hudhayl , Ma`mar , al-Nazzam , al-Futi , and al-Nashi , and an affirmation that the Creator possesses a face and hands .

In addition , we have the Tafsir al-Qur an wa al-Radd `ala man Khalafa al-Bayan min Ahl al-Ifki wa al-Buhtan ( A Commentary on the Qur an and Refutation of Those Who Contradicted it Among the People of Perdition and Calumny ) which Ibn al-`Arabi al-Maliki says numbered 500 volumes . Ibn al-Subki reports from al-Dhahabi that this Tafsir was written at a time al-Ash`ari was still a Mu`tazili .

We also have various epistles in response to questions from the scholars of Tabaristan , Khurasan , Arrujan , Sayraf , Amman , Jurjan , Damascus , Wasit , Ramahramuz , Baghdad , Egypt , and Persia .

Al-Ash`ari’s voluminous works include Ziyadat al-Nawadir ( Addenda to `The Rarities’ ) . Between 320 and his death in 324 , we have the following works listed by Furak:

Af`al al-Nabi Sallallahu `Alayhi wa Sallam ( The Acts of the Prophet may Allah bless and greet him ); al-Akhbar ( The Reports ); Bayan Madhhab al-Nasara ( Exposition of the Doctrine of Christians ); Hikayat Madhahib al-Mujassima ( The Tales of the Schools of the Anthropomorphists ) , a refutation of the proofs they adduce; al-Ihtijaj ( The Adducing of the Proofs ); al-Imama ( The Doctrine of the Imam ); Ithbat al-Qiyas ( The Upholding of the Principle of Analogy ); al-khabar al-wâhid ( Sessions around the lone-narrator report ); Mutashabih al-Qur an ( The Ambiguities in the Qur an ) , in which he brought together the stands of the Mu`tazila and the atheists in their invalidations of the ambiguities in the hadith; Naqd Ibn al-Rawandi `ala Ibtal al-Tawatur ( The Critique of Ibn al-Rawandi s Denial of Mass-Narrated Hadiths ) , which contains an affirmation of the principle of Consensus ( ijmâ` ); Naqd al-Mudahat ( Critique of `The Similarity’ ) , a refutation of al-Iskafi on the term qadar; Naqd al-Taj `ala al-Rawandi ( The Diadem: Critique of Ibn al-Rawandi ); On questions put to al-Jubba i concerning names and rulings; a refutation of Abu al-Hudhayl on the limitlessness of the foreknowledge and decisions of Allah Almighty and Exalted and another on motions; a refutation of Harith al-Warraq on the Attributes; a refutation of the logicians; a refutation of the proponents of metempsychosis and reincarnation . Al-`Umad (  The Supports  ) is on the vision of Allah in the hereafter; and the Al-Wuquf wa al-`Umum ( The Abeyance of Rights and the Public at Large ) .

After listing the above titles , Ibn `Asakir says: “I have seen other works not mentioned by Ibn Furak in his list .   He then proceeds to list the following:

Al-Hathth `ala al-Bahth ( The Encouragement to Research ); Risala al-Iman , an epistle on Belief which discusses whether it is permissible to say that belief is created . Ibn Hajar heard it from Abu Ishaq al-Tannukhi with the latter s chain of transmission back to al-Ash`ari , through the latter s student Abu al-Hasan Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Miqsam al-Muqri  al-Baghdadi; Risala ila Ahl al-Thughar ( Epistle to the People of al-Thughar ) , a definition on the doctrines of Ahl al-Sunna . Ibn `Asakir then mentions that al-Ash`ari s works number over two or three hundred books .

As for the epistle entitled Istihsan al-Khawd fi `Ilm al-Kalam , al-Ash`ari most likely wrote it--provided he actually authored it--before his conversion , since it is ostensibly directed against the Hanbalis and uses markedly Mu`tazili terminology such as  divine Oneness and Justice  ( al-tawhîd wa al-`adl ) in reference to the fundamentals of belief .

The story of this conversion has been told in various versions but the main points on which Al-Asha`ri broke away from the doctrines of Mu`tazila were:

1 . He held that God had eternal attributes whereas the Mu`tazila said that God had no attributes distinct from His essence .

2 . The Mu`tazila said that Qur’anic expressions , such as God s hand and face , must be interpreted to mean  grace  ,  essence  and so on . Al-Ash`ari whilst agreeing that nothing corporeal was meant , held that they were real attributes whose precise nature was unknown . He took God s sitting on the throne in a similar way .

3 . Against the view of the Mu`tazila that the Qur’an was created , al-Ash`ari maintained that it was God’s speech , an eternal attribute , and therefore uncreated .

4 . In opposition to the view of the Mu`tazila that God could not literally be seen , since that would imply that He is corporeal and limited , al-Ash`ari held that the vision of God in the world to come is a reality , though we cannot understand the manner of it .

5 . In contrast to the emphasis of the Mu`tazila on the reality of choice in human activity , al-Ash`ari insisted on God s omnipotence; everything , good and evil , is willed by God , and He creates the acts of men by creating in men the power to do each act . ( The doctrine of  acquisition  or kasb , which was in later times characteristic of the Ash`ariyya , is commonly attributed to al-Ash`ari himself , but , though he was familiar with the concept , he does not appear to have held the doctrine himself ) .

6 . While the Mu`tazila with their doctrine of al-manzila bayn al-manzilatayn held that any Muslim guilty of a serious sin was neither believer nor unbeliever , al-Ash`ari insisted that he remained a believer , but was liable to punishment in the Fire .

7 . Al-Ash`ari maintained the reality of various eschatological features , the Basin , the Bridge , the Balance and intercession by the Prophet Muhammad , which were denied or rationally interpreted by the Mu`tazila .

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